BOOKS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD PAG 9

Life and Death of Socrates: Apology, Crito, Phaedo: Socrates was indicted in 399 B.C. before an Athenian criminal tribunal, for not believing in th Greek gods and for corrupting young men. When his trial began, the Peloponnesian War had been over for five years; the Athenian empire was in ruins; and Athens was split into factions and beset with internal troubles. Observing that ancient religious beliefs were discredited and established political principles were being questioned, the conservative-minded sought a scapegoat. Their suspicions began to center on Socrates, who they determined should be compelled to stand trial as a public nuisance.The indictement was brought by an obscure young poet, Meletus, who was prompted by more influential and powerful figures in the background. Meletus´ accusation read: "Socrates commits a crime by not believing in the gods of the city, and by introducing other new divinities. He also commits a crime by corrupting the youth. Penalty, Death." A jury of 501 persons was drawn by lot to hear the case. After the prosecutors, who claimed to be moved solely by patriotism and not by malice, had presented their evidence. Socrates rose to reply. His speeches and those of this friends fill the first twenty-four chapters of the Apology./ In his apologia pro vita sua , Socrates explains his life and motives and states that he acted as he did at the command of the gods. He has made enemies, he concedes, by proving men ignorant when they thought themselves wise, exposing their pretense of knowledge. His life has been one of uselfish dedication to the state; therefore, rather than being angry with him, the Athenians shoud thank the gods for sending him to stir them from their lethargy and for turning their minds toward the true realities, virtue and justice. As a public benefactor, Socrates concludes that he should be supported by the state./ Despite his eloquent plea, the jurors find Socrates guilty, though by a close vote, and death is decreed. Thus the trial ends but Socrates addresses some last words to those who have condemned him. He rebukes them for their crime, warning them that they cannot silence the voices of criticism by putting men to death. He bids his friends be of good cheer. No harm can befall a good man in life or in death. Death is either an eternal and dreamless sleep or a journey to another and a better world. In either case, it is not an evil but a good. "Whether life or death be better is known only to God." / According ot a narrowly legalistic interpretaion, Socrates´ accusers had a case. As George Bernard Shaw ironically remarks, "One of the famous feats of the Athenian Democracy was to execute Socrates for using his superior brains to expose its follies." Socrates was introducing a new spiritual and intellectual era; he asserted that the individual conscience should be supreme over man-made laws; he insisted upon the public value of free discussion in the pursuit of a truth, and he taught youth to place reason and inward conviction above authority -all of which teachings were correctly seen by conservatives as subversive of the status quo. Though Socrates was indicted and condemned as an offender against religion and morality, the predominant motive of his accusers was indubitable political./ The scene of the Crito is laid in prison, where Socrates´ friend Crito arrives in early morning while Socrates is still aslep. The prime purpose of the dialogue seems to be to establish Socrates´ complete integrity and patriotism. Crito implores him to escape and save himself. It will be easy and there are many places where he may go. Further, by escaping, Socrates will avoid loss of personal reputation or injury to his children. These arguments Socrates rejects. One should not return evil for evil, he declares and he will be wronging the state if he breaks the law and escapes. Hence, though he has been unjustly condemoned, he will give up his life, because he is an obedient citizen, unwillin to flout the authority of the state. If he disregards and dishonors the laws of his own country, he will be regarded as the enemy of the law everywhere./ The political teachings of the Crito ar a faithful representation of Socrates´ views. To him, to break the laws is to strike at the root of all society and to leave the state that he has hitherto accepted and loved simply to save his own life would be cowardly. Further, Socrates absolves the state from guilt for what is to be in effect a judicial murder. His aquittal of the state is in effect both a condemnation of his judges and a counteraccusation of high treason against individuals. Clearly, since the state is innocent, the guilt rests with the judges and accusers, who have misinterpreted and missaplied the law./ Another important consideration for Socrates, in refusing to accept Crito´s offer to aid his escape, i his age. He is now old and has finished his mission. It is a propitious time to die, and his death in this manner will insure his fame and future influence./ The Phaedo reports the last hours of Socrates in prison before his execution, as told by Phaedo, who has been with him, to Echecrates. Some friends have come to be with Socrates at the end. The conversation turns naturally to death, and the Phaedo is essentially an inspiring discourse on the immortality of the soul./ Socrates conceives death to be merely the separation of body and soul. The true philosopher does not fear death; because in afterlife, he will be cared for by the gods, surrounded by the best of companions, and released from the body, which is a constant hindrance to the contemplation of justice, beauty, goodness, and other eternal ideas. Those who fear death love their bodies or wealth or honor above wisdom./ When one of his auditors questions the future existence of the soul, Socrates advances the doctrine of opposites: death succeeds life and therefore life must succeed death. Also supporting this belief is the doctrine that knowledge is derived from recollection: all our konwledge is a remembrance of what we have known at some previous time, presumably before we were born. Our souls, accordingly, must have existed before they entered our bodies. The pure soul goes to live with the gods in a place that is glorious, pure, and invisible. On the other hand, the impure soul remains earthbound until it enters the body of a congenial lower animal (e.g. the sensual gsoul goes into the body of an ass, and the unjust or tyrannical soul into the body of a wolf). / Another friend asks whether the soul is independent of generation and corruption. Socrates answers that life is the opposite of death, and that life is inseparable from the soul. The soul, being immortan and therefore indestructible, will not admit death, and survives unharmed the death of the body./ Socrates then describes the soul´s journey to the other world and its life there. He introduces the myth of the earth as a globe balanced in space with many mansions for the soul above the area now occupied by man. All souls will be judged, and suitable rewards and punishment await them. The man who has devoted himself to his soul rather than to his body will find a place of wondrous beauty prepared for him in the hereafter./ The Phaedo concludes with Socrates´ final preparations and death: a bath, to save the women the trouble of washing a corpse; a brief interview with his wife and children; last unjuntions to his friends; and then drainign the cup of poison brought by the executioner. "Sucha was the end, " Phaedo tells Echecrates, "of our friend, who was, as we may say, of all those of his time whom we have known, the best and wisest and most righteous man." / A reading of this trilogy -the Apology, Crito, and Phaedo- must leave on profoundly impressed with Socrates´ sincerity, high principles, and burning faith. Edwin A. Quain aptly observes: "The basic concepts involved in the structure of morality -death, immortality, duty, the sanctity of law, and its inevitable retribution- these are the contents of the gospel according to Socrates." / Republic, Statesman, and Laws: Teh political philosophy of Plato is contained in three treatises dealing primarily with affairs of state: the Republic, the Statesman, and the Laws. The Republic, weitten in Plato´s middle age, sets forth his ideals; the Statesman, written later, states some ideas more precisely; and the Laws, Plato´s largest book, composed in his old age, aims to adapt in practical fashion his political dreams to human nature, In these, as in most of his other writings, Plato employs his characteristic dialogic method of presentation. Teh framework is a supposed discussion between Socrates and several friends, a group typical of such people as Plato may have met in the Athens of his day./ Of all Platonic writings, the Republic is most renowned, widely read, and onfluential. Though usually described as a utopia, the commonwealth depicted by Plato does not purpot to be the kingdom of heaven. Reform of Greek society -not the millenium- is the aim. Realisticaly, it is proposed to take human nature as we find it and make the best of it. Plato conceived the Greek city-state as the highest known form of society, but one obviously suffering from serious internal weaknesses. Consequently, the problem to which Plato adressed himself was: What changes should be made in the organization of the city-state to eliminate strife and factionalism, provide the greatest good for all its inhabitants, and achieve a stable order? / An English scholar, F.R. Hoare, points out thet Republic is not an accurate translation of the Greek title of Plato´s masterpiece and that the work has nothing to do with republicanism. As used by Plato, Hoare suggests, the Greek word means "balanced constitutional government," or perhaps "constitutional regime." / The troubled era in which Plato lived was a major element in shaping his political ideas. He had observed the disastrous consequences of the Peloponnesian War; witnessed the utter defeat of Athens and the downfall of democracy; seen crimes committed by both mobs and aristocrats; had the extremely painful personal experience of losing his revered teacher Socrates through a death sentence and being himself force to leave the city by an intolerant government; and noted the calamitous consequences of political chaos. Thus, the motivations behind the Republic appear to have been despair and frustration./





PAGINA 57 EN EL CIRCULO